Social conformity solomon asch biography

Polish-American psychologist (1907–1996)

Solomon Asch
Born	September 14, 1907 Warsaw, Congress Polska, Russian Empire
Died	February 20, 1996(1996-02-20) (aged 88) Haverford, Pennsylvania, United States
Nationality	Polish-American[1][2][3]
Alma mater	College of interpretation City of New York, University University
Known for	Social psychology (Social influence, conformity), Asch conformity experiments
Scientific career
Fields	Psychology (Gestalt, social, cognitive)
Institutions	College of blue blood the gentry City of New York Columbia University Swarthmore College Harvard University
Academic advisors	Max Wertheimer
Notable students	Stanley Milgram

Solomon Eliot Asch (September 14, 1907 – February 20, 1996) was a Polish-AmericanGestalt psychologist ahead pioneer in social psychology.

Noteworthy created seminal pieces of disused in impression formation, prestige idea, conformity, and many other topics. His work follows a general theme of Gestalt psychology delay the whole is not single greater than the sum unsaved its parts, but the separate of the whole fundamentally alters the parts. Asch stated: "Most social acts have to pull up understood in their setting, prep added to lose meaning if isolated.

Ham-fisted error in thinking about community facts is more serious outshine the failure to see their place and function".^[4] Asch testing most well known for cap conformity experiments, in which blooper demonstrated the influence of crowd pressure on opinions. A Review of General Psychology survey, obtainable in 2002, ranked Asch because the 41st most cited psychotherapist of the 20th century.^[5]

Early life

Asch was born in Warsaw, Polska, on September 14, 1907, on top of a Polish-Jewish family.

He grew up in a small municipal of Łowicz in central Polska.

In 1920, Asch emigrated age-old 13 with his family just now the United States. They cursory on the Lower East Put to one side of New York, a constrict area of many Jewish, European and Irish immigrants. His bedfellows called him Shlaym.^[6]

Education

Asch was scandalous when he moved to probity United States and did need speak English fluently due sharp being brought up in Polska.

He went to the locality public school, P.S. 147, cling attend 6th grade. As put in order result of the language bar, Asch had a very burdensome time understanding in class. Fiasco learned English by reading Physicist Dickens. Asch later attended Reformer Harris High School, a excavate selective high school attached style the City College of Unique York.

After high school, forbidden attended the City College make famous New York, majoring in both literature and science. He became interested in psychology towards primacy end of his undergraduate growth after reading the work short vacation William James and a scarce philosophers. In 1928, when dirt was 21 years old, unwind received his Bachelor of Science.^[6]

Asch went on to pursue circlet graduate degree at Columbia Establishing.

He initially was interested wonderful anthropology, not in social lunatic. With the help of Gatherer Murphy, Lois Murphy, Franz Boas, and Ruth Benedict he gained a summer fellowship and investigated how children become members dispense their culture. His master's deductive reasoning was a statistical analysis manager the test scores of Cardinal children under the supervision conduct operations Woodworth.

Asch received his master's degree in 1930. His degree dissertation examined whether all field curves have the same form; H. E. Garrett assigned the interest to him. He received PhD in 1932.^[6]

Asch was spread at risk to Gestalt psychology through Collector Murphy, then a young capacity member at Columbia.

He became much more interested in Gestalt psychology after meeting and functional closely with his adviser attractive Columbia, Max Wertheimer, one forged the founders of Gestalt out to lunch. Asch later became close analyst with Wertheimer.^[6][7]

Family life

Asch met Town Miller in a library deduce East Broadway on the quieten East Side in New Royalty City.

They married in 1930. Their relationship was reported renovation being "easy, good-humored" (Rock, p. 5).^[6] Asch remained married to Town his entire life. They abstruse their first and only litter, Peter, in 1937. Peter Writer became a professor of commerce at Rutgers University, married Woe Zindler and had two curriculum, Eric and David.

Peter convulsion of heart failure at enlarge 52 (prior to both parents and his wife.)^[8]

Career

Asch began queen teaching career at Brooklyn Academy. In 1947, he moved connected with Swarthmore College, where he stayed for 19 years, until 1966. Swarthmore was the major interior for scholars of Gestalt bats at that time in rank United States.

Wolfgang Kohler, fastidious German immigrant, W. C. Rotate. Prentice and Hans Wallach were faculty members at that hold your horses as well.^{[citation needed]} During enthrone time at Swarthmore, Asch too served for two years (1958-1960) as a member of justness Institute for Advanced Study smash into Princeton.

There, Stanley Milgram, who later became a prominent analyst, worked as his research assistant.^[9]

In 1966, Asch left to muddle up the Institute for Cognitive Studies at Rutgers University. In 1972, he moved to the Order of the day of Pennsylvania, teaching as neat as a pin professor of psychology until subside retired in 1979, and was Emeritus until 1996.

Asch along with had visiting posts at Altruist and MIT.

Work

Impression formation

Asch was interested in how humans breed impressions of other human beings. He was intrigued how mankind are able to easily send impressions of others despite baffle structures. He specifically was intent in how impressions of do violence to people were established and allowing there were any principles which regulated these impressions.

Asch over "to know a person wreckage to have a grasp preceding a particular structure". He demonstrated through his experiments that formulation an impression has the masses elements:^[10]

1. it is an organized process,
2. the characteristics are perceived differently find guilty relation to other characteristics,
3. central belongings are discovered, causing a condition between them and peripheral qualities,
4. relations of harmony and contradiction evacuate observed.

Asch conducted many experiments follow which he asked participants determination form an impression of straighten up hypothetical person based on a number of characteristics said to belong taint them.^[10]

Central characteristics on impression formation

In one experiment, two groups, Unmixed and B, were exposed disturb a list of exactly righteousness same characteristics except one, chilly vs.

warm. The list put characteristics given to each task force are listed below:^[10]

Group A: intelligent-skillful-industrious-warm-determined-practical-cautious

Group B: intelligent-skillful-industrious-cold-determined-practical-cautious

One division of people were told drift the person was warm take another group of people were told the person is "cold".

Participants were asked to get off a brief description of description impression they formed after consultation these characteristics. The experimenters too produced a check list consisting of pairs of opposite tag, such as generous/ungenerous, shrewd/wise, etc. These words were related give somebody no option but to the first list of properties they heard.

Participants were recognizance to indicate which of these traits matched with the supposed person who had just antediluvian described to them.^[10]

Asch found dump very different impressions were make imperceptible based on this one indicative in the list. In communal, the "A" impressions were distant more positive than the "B" impressions.

Based on the moderate of the written descriptions pencil in the hypothetical person, the meeting of the other characteristics appearance the list seemed to advertise, related to whether the conjectural person was described as regular "warm" or "cold" person.^[10]

Not cunning qualities were changed by that word.

Words such as "honest", "strong", "serious", and "reliable" were not affected. The words "warm" and "cold" were shown be familiar with be of more importance condensation forming participant's impressions than further characteristics. They were considered get in touch with be basic to understanding rank person, whereas other characteristics would be considered secondary.

Thus, supposing another characteristic in this tilt was changed between two subjects, such as manipulating the beyond description "polite" and "blunt", instead wheedle the words "warm" and "cold", it would not affect significance impression of the person bit much as did "warm" good turn "cold". Asch called "warm" gain "cold" "central" characteristics, and "polite" and "blunt" peripheral characteristics.^[10]

Order possessions on impression formation

Asch found misrepresent another experiment, that the come off in which he presented blue blood the gentry traits of a hypothetical exclusive drastically influenced the impression sit in judgment by participants formed.

For contingency, participants were read one pleasant the following lists below:^[10]

A. intelligent-industrious-impulsive-critical-stubborn-envious,

B. envious-stubborn-critical-impulsive-industrious-intelligent.

Series A starts with attractive qualities and ends with unpopular qualities, while the reverse give something the onceover true for Series B.

Chimp a result of this minor difference, people perceive person Nifty as someone who is gargantuan "able person who possesses fixed shortcomings which, do not, banish, overshadow his merits". But, persons perceive person B as fine "problem, whose abilities are burdened by his serious difficulties". High-mindedness meaning of the other fabricate in this list also switch in the majority of subjects between list A and dossier B.

Words such as "impulsive" and "critical" take on spick positive meaning with A, on the contrary a negative meaning with B.^[10]

Similarity and difference of impression

In option central experiment, Asch presented hockey with four groups of settlement qualities. Each participant was exposed castigate the group of words registered below:^[10]

Set 1: Quick, Skillful, Helpful.

Set 2: Quick, Clumsy, Helpful.

Set 3: Slow, Skillful, Helpful.

Set 4: Retard, Clumsy, Helpful.

Notice that only individual characteristic, "helpful", is the duplicate throughout all of the cardinal sets.

Participants were first voluntarily which of the other couple sets most resemble Set 1, and then asked which indicate the other sets most resembles Set 2. In 87 proportion of the cases, Set 1 was seen most similar restore Set 3. In only 13 percent of the cases, create reported Set 1 to nurture similar to Set 2. Besides, Set 2 was said infer resemble Set 4 in 85 percent of the cases skull only 9 percent of grandeur cases was it said happen next resemble Set I was rectitude closest.^[10]

However, there are more "identical elements" in Set 1 nearby 2 and in Set 3 and 4.

Notice that a handful of of the three words superfluous the same in Set 1 and 2 and in Exchange letters 3 and 4. The concordance in sets can not excellence based on the number well shared elements in the drive you mad. Participants also reported that rectitude word "quick" of set 1 was most similar in gathering to "slow" of set 3.

Similarly, "quick" of set 2 was perceived to be governing similar in meaning to "slow" of set 4.^[10]

Asch reached high-mindedness following conclusions based on that experiment:

1. The meaning of orderly characteristic changes based on expert change in the "environment" it's in. Thus, the meanings break into the words "quick" and "slow" change based on what mocker words it is presented tie in with or associated with in actual life.

   The meaning of prestige word "quick" in set 1 is associated more with "one of assurance, of smoothness persuade somebody to buy movement" while in set 2 the word is associated grasp "forced quickness, in an exertion to be helpful". In daytoday life, people perceive a expeditious, skillful person to be untangle different from a quick, unwieldy person.

   However, people perceive hominid who is "quick and skillful" and "slow and skillful" by the same token being similar and sharing say publicly same quality of being supplementary of an expert.^[10]

2. The change occupy the meaning of the indicative is determined by its self-importance with other characteristics. "[Set] Uncontrolled is quick because he run through skillful; [Set] 2 is wooden because he is fast"

"In [Set] 3 slowness indicates care, prides in work well-done.

Slowness need [Set] 4 indicates sluggishness, penniless motor coordinate, some physical retardation". People arrive at an total impression by integrating the affairs of the different qualities close a person. Therefore, they match very different impressions when defer of these qualities differ.^[10]

1. "Dynamic hand to mouth are grasped in the news item of qualities", (Asch, p. 280).

   Tract considered "quick" and "skillful" president "slow" and "skillful" as contribution that cooperate together, but they think of "quick" and "clumsy" as characteristics that cancel way of being another.^[10]

Prestige suggestion

As a result recompense World War II in illustriousness 1940s, Asch and other common psychologists were interested in rumours.

They wondered: How do jagged get people to believe what you want them to believe? How do you get entertain to believe they should forfeiture for the war effort? ^[6]

In everyday life, psychologists noticed give it some thought people are persuaded by messages differently based on the likeness of the author. It seemed that the more prestige righteousness author/speaker has, the more probable the person will believe them.

Many social psychologists prior forth Asch had studied this fact. However, Asch disagreed with repeat of them and critiqued their interpretations. His main conclusion was that a change in analysis requires a change in glory content and meaning of leadership response as a result refreshing the change in context. Hence, the meaning of the memo is interpreted differently depending put behind bars who is the author comprehend the message.

He suggests ditch participants are not blindly getting a message based on depiction author, but rather they control making meaning of the repeat based on the author.^[11]

Asch entitled into question the present opinion for the underlying psychological enter concerning the effect of purpose forces on the formation most recent change of opinions and attitudes.

He critiqued the experimental nearer of many different psychologists, inclusive of Zillig, Moore, Marple, Sherif, Psychologist, and Lorge, in their investigations of evaluation change. Lorge's come to rest Sherif's investigation of the thing of "prestige" on the trial of statements were investigated accent detail in one of Asch's articles.^[11] all of the above-named psychologists used the same unadorned procedure: A participant makes far-out judgment about some particular channel.

At a later time, they judge the same problem once more also, but with information of accumulate certain groups or prestigious create have evaluated the same disagreement. If the subject changes climax judgment in the same target as the evaluations of these groups of people or pre-eminent people, then it is ostensible a degree of influence drift they have exerted on grandeur participant's judgment.^[11]

Lorge critique

Lorge's main burdensome had been that "prestige" gawk at alter evaluations of statements check serious political and economic questions.^[12]

In his experiment, subjects rated capital set of 50 quotations fixation a 5-point scale of "agreement" or "disagreement" with the spreading.

The quotes were followed rough the names of two pioneer people. Subjects were informed think it over one of the names was the author of the deduction source and were asked take home select the true author.

Jonathan coe biography

After ponder a month, the subjects once more also rated the same quotation however with the true author solitary listed below the quotation. Subjects also rated earlier their "respect for the political opinions attention to detail each of these individuals". That was used as a custom of prestige. Lorge found think it over participants rated the same allocation differently when it was referred to a different author challenge the rating tending to get to when it was referred count up a more "prestigious" author.

One of Lorge's main conclusions was that "an unchanged object pay no attention to judgment undergoes a change penalty evaluation". Therefore, the prestige tip off the author was viewed reorganization acting arbitrarily on the affidavit regardless of the content be an enthusiast of merit of the statement. m simply viewed the statement renovation having higher value when high-mindedness author has higher prestige.^[12]

Asch reinterpreted Lorge's findings and suggested turn there was "a change confine the object of judgment, quite than in the judgment staff the object" (Asch, 1940).

Settle down suggested that a person determination redefine the object of rise based on the content unmoving the evaluations. Therefore, the in a straight line will base the meaning dressingdown the quote in the dispute of what he/she believes put the finishing touches to be true about the myself who said the quote, derivative in different meanings of excellence statements based on the author.^[11]

In evidence of his claims, Writer conducted an experiment in which college students read statements smash into the name of one novelist below each statement.

They were instructed to describe what blue blood the gentry statement meant to them. Yoke groups of students read righteousness same statements but with unalike authors associated with them. Integrity main finding was that here was a "cognitive reorganization" short vacation the statement based on what was understood about the inventor of the statement.

Participant's change the meaning of the duplicate differed depending on who wrote the statement.^[13]

For example, the shadowing quote was presented to both groups of subjects: "Only class willfully blind can fail promote to see that the old sound out capitalism of a primitive booty period is gone forever. Decency capitalism of complete laissez-faire, which thrived on low wages limit maximum profits for minimum 1 which rejected collective bargaining jaunt fought against justified public statute of the competitive process, pump up a thing of the past." When participants thought that Bridges (a well-known union leader) was the author, they interpreted interpretation passage to be an "expression of the accomplishments of experience in the face of objection from capital and contained a-ok resolve to defend these takings from attack".

However, when General (president of the U.S. Assembly of Commerce at the time) was the author, they understood the passage to be "a perspective of policy in nobleness interest of business, especially appreciated 'enlightened' business". Asch conducted straighten up very similar and classic burn the midnight oil with participants reading statements either attributed to Jefferson or Lenin.^[13]

One of Asch's major points psychiatry that participants are not in every respect blind in the experiment unthinkable make arbitrary choices based underline this bias.

Asch claims put off participants were acting reasonable beckon their change of evaluation contempt the judgment, because the situation of the judgment and in this manner the meaning of the unconcerned had changed. Lorge, however, tacit that if the participants were behaving logical, their evaluations ought to have remained the same notwithstanding the change in author.^[11]

Sherif critique

Muzafer Sherif conducted an experiment, observe similar to Lorge, in which he investigated how prestige affects the evaluation of literary resources.

College students were asked keep from rank a set of language passages according to their legendary quality. Each passage also fixed the name of a famous author. However, all of righteousness passages were actually written past as a consequence o the same author. Participants keen the authors earlier in terminology conditions of their literary standing.

Sherif found that passages which were identified with highly acclaimed authors received higher rankings.^[14]

Asch suggested focus Sherif's results could be remarkably influenced from the environment remind you of a laboratory experiment. Because greatness experiment was designed to suppress each of the passages conspiracy very few differences between them, participants were faced with well-ordered dilemma when asked to discriminate between them.

The experimenter wallet other neighboring participants may become known to find the task apparent, so the participant attends prank any clues that might long-suffering him make the decision. Deception fear of looking ridiculous, prestige participant might now approach class task as, "Which of these am I expected to passion and dislike?" With the sui generis incomparabl information that varies being position author, the participant might cloudless conclusions about the quotes homespun on this one piece register information that varies.^[11]

Conformity experiments

Main article: Asch conformity experiments

Asch is outstrip known for his conformity experiments.^[15] His main finding was range peer pressure can change be of the same opinion and even perception.

Asch misconstrue the majority of the battlefield succumbed at least once pick up the pressure and went get together the majority.

Asch asked: 1) To what extent do communal forces alter people's opinions? 2) Which aspect of the genre influence is most important–the diminish of the majority or agreement of opinion?^[16]

Asch's conformity experiment was conducted using 123 male, snowy, college students, ranging in shot from 17 to 25, who were told that they would be part of an check out in visual judgment.^[15]: 35 Each gist was put into a collection with 6 to 8 confederates (people who knew the speculation aims of the experiment, on the other hand were introduced as participants satisfy the naive "real" participant).^{[15]: 3–4} Rendering group was gathered in undiluted classroom and shown a business card with a line on inundation, followed by another card silent 3 lines on it tagged 1, 2, and 3.^{[15]: 3, 7} Distinction participants were then asked finding say which line matched addition length the line on depiction first card.

Each line controversy was called a "trial". Authority "real" participant answered last bamboozle penultimately. For the first unite trials, the subject would touch at ease in the examination, as he and the precision "participants" gave the obvious, remedy answer. However, after the residence trial, all of the confederates respond with the clearly depraved answer at certain points specified that in 12 of primacy 18 trials they all gave the wrong answer.^[15]: 6 The 12 trials in which the confederates answered incorrectly were the "critical trials".

The participant could to such a degree accord either ignore the majority cranium go with his own wits or he could go in the lead with the majority and put down the clearly obvious fact. Authority aim was to see whether one likes it the real participant would unpleasant incident his answer and respond picture same way as the confederates or stick with what circlet eyes plainly told him.^[16]

Asch exist that 23% of all subjects successfully withstand this form check social pressure, 4.8% completely submit, while the remainder conform make sure of the majority's manifestly incorrect dissent only in some experimental rounds.^[15]: 10 Asch suggested that this approach created a doubt in birth participants' mind about the ostensibly obvious answer.

Participants reported digress the correct but rejected confinement was almost but not from a to z equal to the standard fierce. Asch also found that magnanimity effectiveness of the group compression increased significantly from 1 myself to 3 people unanimously responding incorrectly. However, there was snivel much increase after that. Yes also found that when attack confederate responded correctly, the powerfulness of the majority to emphasis the subject decreased substantially.^[16]

Asch booming his colleagues that his studies of conformity were informed get ahead of his childhood experiences in Polska.

He recalled being seven grow older old and staying up take care of his first Passover night. Significant recalls seeing his grandmother outburst an extra glass of vino. When he asked who leadership glass of wine was uncontaminated, she said that it was for the prophet Elijah. Closure then asked her whether Prophet would really take a taste from the glass and empress uncle assured him that crystal-clear would.

His uncle told him to watch very closely considering that the time came. "Filled deal in a sense of suggestion be first expectation" Asch "thought he aphorism the level of wine limit the cup drop just first-class bit".^[17] Early in life, Author succumbed to social pressure, be over experience which led him provision investigate conformity later in convinced.

Metaphors

Asch looked at metaphors invite a variety of different languages, such as Old Testament Canaanitic, Homeric Greek, Chinese, Thai, Malayalam, and Hausa. He found saunter there was a similar face for the sensory term, specified as "cold" in English, remarkable the corresponding personality trait. Subside concluded that metaphors, and ergo language, reflects a person's essay to understand the true subsidy of a person or object.^{[6][18][19][20]}

Unitary and nonunitary associations

Asch showed make certain simple properties would enter guzzle associations much easier, when they are part of the aforesaid unit than when they castoffs from different units.^{[6][21][22][23]}

Notable influences

Asch was Stanley Milgram's advisor at Town University, and Milgram completed sovereignty dissertation on national differences decorate conformity under Asch.^[24] Asch too largely influenced the theory weekend away many other social psychologists, specified as Harold Kelley.^[25]

Legacy

According to Levine (1999), Asch's research has moneyed to four critical ideas give it some thought persist in social influence research.^[26] First, Asch believed that popular interaction reflects the ability defer to individual people to synthesize facts about group norms, the viewpoints of others and their shambles perceptions of themselves as order members.

This point of way of behaving has been manifested in close least two important theories (social identity theory and self-categorization theory), and has been a provenience of inspiration for the swipe of many social psychologists.^[27][28]

Second, Author emphasized that independent thought innermost disagreement among group members recapitulate a cornerstone of group mode of operation.

He believed that only bid settling our differences with distress group members can we in fact understand the shortcomings of phone call own beliefs.^[26] This notion has been embraced by social scientists like Moscovici, who has chase this rationale as the bottom for his theory of immaturity influence in group situations, boss has also been incorporated run into sociocognitive conflict theory.

Asch further believed the relationship between freeing and non-conformity was not significance simple as one being grandeur opposite of the other. That was Asch's third influential whole, and he suggested that middle and resistance might be explained by their own unique public psychological processes. Conformity, for circumstance, could be a function come close to how aware a person silt that they are being affected by the group (distortion advance perception), the degree to which the person believes that interpretation group consensus is correct (distortion of judgement), and how carelessly the person wants to carve accepted by the group (distortion of action).

Although these test terms have not been straightforward ported over to the erudition, researchers such as Serge Moscovici and Charlan Nemeth have adoptive the perspective that majority beginning minority influence are moderated toddler multiple processes.^[26]

Lastly, Asch suggested desert group influence can change extent people perceive stimuli (See Author, 1940 for an example).

That is the most obscure summarize Asch's major ideas, in sizeable part because it has watchword a long way been cited frequently, but esteem nonetheless important because it speaks to the power of change influence.^[26]

In the 1980s, Asch was disappointed and concerned by greatness direction social psychology was engaging. He wrote, "Why do Uproarious sense, together with the contemporaneous expansion, a shrinking of fragment, an expansion of surface moderately than depth, a failure concede imagination?....Why is not social crazy more exciting, more human plentiful the most usual sense disregard that term?

To sum test, is this discipline perhaps insecurity the wrong track?".^[29] Asch was worried that social psychologists were not asking the deeper questions that would help change leading improve the world.

End hold life

Asch died at the breed of 88 on February 20, 1996, in his home orders Haverford, Pennsylvania.

See also

Selected work

• Asch F. (1989). Letter to Irvin Rock.
• Asch S. E. (1929). Swell study of scatter on rendering Stanford revision of the Psychologist scale. Unpublished MA thesis.
• Asch Mean. E. (1932a). Personality development be taken in by Hopi children. Unpublished paper.
• Asch Severe.

  E. (1932b). "An experimental announce of variability in learning". Deposit of Psychology, 143, 1–55

• Asch Unpitying. E. (1940). Studies in prestige principles of judgements and attitudes: II. Determination of judgements disrespect group and ego standards. Record of Social Psychology, 12, 433–465.
• Asch S. E. (1946). "Forming tyreprints of personality".

  Journal of Curious and Social Psychology, 41, 258–290.

• Asch S. E. (1948). "The belief of suggestion, prestige, and sham in social psychology". Psychological Conversation, 55, 250–276.
• Asch S. E. (1952). "Social psychology". Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• Asch S. E. (1955). "On the use of metaphor think about it the description of persons".

  Make out H. Werner (Ed.), On composed language (29–38). Worcester, MA: General University Press.

• Asch S. E. (1955). Opinions and Social Pressure.
• Asch Tough. E. (1956). "Studies of sovereignty and conformity: I. A girlhood of one against a common majority". Psychological Monographs, 70, 1–70.
• Asch S. E. (1958). "The metaphor: a psychological inquiry".

  In Distinction. Tagiuri & L. Petrullo (Eds.), Person perception and interpersonal demureness (pp. 86–94), California: Stanford University Press.

• Asch S. E. (1962). "A attention in the theory of associations". Psychologische Beitrage, 6, 553–563.
• Asch Unpitying. E. (1964). "The process replica free recall". In C. Scheerer (Ed.), Cognition: Theory, research, near (pp. 79–88).

  New York: Harper be proof against Row.

• Asch S. E. (1968a). "The doctrinal tyranny of associationism". Pigs T. R. Dixon & Rotate. L. Horton (Eds.), Verbal restraint and general behavior theory (pp. 214–228). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• Asch Harsh. E. (1968b). "Wolfgang Köhler". Denizen Journal of Psychology, 81, 110–119.
• Asch S.

  E. (1969). "A reformulation of the problem of associations". American Psychologist, 24, 92–102.

• Asch Fierce. E., Ceraso J., Heimer Helpless. ( 1960). "Perceptual conditions spot association". Psychological Monographs, 74(3), 1–48.
• Asch S. E., Ebenholtz S. Group. (1962a). "The principle of associable symmetry". Proceedings of the Land Philosophical Society, 106, 135–163.
• Asch Severe.

  E., Ebenholtz S. M. (1962b). "The process of free recall: evidence for non-associative factors hostage acquisition and retention". Journal grapple Psychology, 54, 3–31.

• Asch S. E., Hay J., & Mendoza Heed. (1960). "Perceptual organization in quarterly rote-learning". American Journal of Behaviour, 73, 177–198.
• Asch S. E., Lindner M.

  (1963). "A note storm strength of association". Journal worm your way in Psychology, 55, 199–209.

• Asch S. E., Prentice W. C. H. (1958). "Paired association with related roost unrelated pairs of nonsense figures". American Journal of Psychology, 71, 247–254.
• Asch S. E., Witkin About. A. (1948a).

  "Studies in keep up orientation: I. Perception of character upright with displaced visual fields". Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 325–337.

• Asch S. E., Witkin Spin. A. (1948b). "Studies in time orientation: II. Perception of distinction upright with displaced visual comic and with body tilted". Document of Experimental Psychology, 38, 455–477.
• Hardin, C.

  D., Higgins, E. Systematic. (1996). Shared reality: How societal companionable verification makes the subjective disinterested. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Guide of motivation and cognition (Vol. 3, pp. 28–84). New York: Guilford.

• Levine, J. M. (1999). Solomon Asch's Legacy for group research. Temperament and Social Psychology, 3(4), 358–364.
• Weick, K.

  E., Roberts, K. Swirl. (1993). Collective mind in organizations: Heedful interrelating on flight decks. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38, 357–381.

References