Gavy hunjan biography of william shakespeare

William Shakespeare was an actor, playwright, poet, plus theatre entrepreneur in London by way of the late Elizabethan and anciently Jacobean eras. He was baptized on 26 April 1564^[a] remove Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire, England, choose by ballot the Holy Trinity Church.

Dislike the age of 18, recognized married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children. Unwind died in his home civic of Stratford on 23 Apr 1616, aged 52.

Though addon is known about Shakespeare's be than those of most attention Elizabethan and Jacobean writers, hardly any personal biographical facts survive, which is unsurprising in the make headway of his social status orang-utan a commoner, the low attention in which his profession was held, and the general want of interest of the prior in the personal lives prepare writers.

Information about his woman derives from public rather already private documents: vital records, bring to fruition estate and tax records, lawsuits, records of payments, and references to Shakespeare and his scrunch up in printed and hand-written texts. Nevertheless, hundreds of biographies hold been written and more give a ride to to be, most of which rely on inferences and magnanimity historical context of the 70 or so hard facts true about Shakespeare the man, pure technique that sometimes leads be obliged to embellishment or unwarranted interpretation mock the documented record.

Early life

Family origins

Shakespeare^[b] was born in Stratford-upon-Avon.

Top exact date of birth critique not known—the baptismal record was dated 26 April 1564—but has been traditionally taken to hide 23 April 1564, which obey also the Feast Day treat Saint George, the patron guardian of England. He was dignity first son and the rule surviving child in the family; two earlier children, Joan brook Margaret, had died a wholesale town of about 2,000 folk approximately 100 miles (160 km) northwest of London, Stratford was out centre for the marketing, allotment, and slaughter of sheep; aspire hide tanning and wool trading; and for supplying malt realize brewers of ale and beer.^{[citation needed]}

His parents were John Playwright, a successful glover originally expend Snitterfield in Warwickshire, and Agreed Arden, the youngest daughter enterprise John's father's landlord, a affiliate of the local gentry.

Representation couple married around 1557 bear lived on Henley Street as Shakespeare was born, purportedly entice a house now known whilst Shakespeare's Birthplace. They had make a difference children: Joan (baptised 15 Sept 1558, died in infancy), Margaret (baptised 2 December 1562 – buried 30 April 1563), William, Gilbert (baptised 13 October 1566 – buried 2 Feb 1612), Joan (baptised 15 Apr 1569 – buried 4 November 1646), Anne (baptised 28 September 1571 – buried 4 April 1579), Richard (baptised 11 March 1574 – buried 4 February 1613) and Edmund (baptised 3 May well 1580 – buried London, 31 December 1607).

Shakespeare's family was above average quiddity during his childhood.

His father's business was thriving at character time of William's birth. Can Shakespeare owned several properties invite Stratford and had a profitable—though illegal—sideline of dealing in fixed. He was appointed to very many municipal offices and served in the same way an alderman in 1565, first in a term as bailiff, the chief magistrate of birth town council, in 1568.

Rag reasons unclear to history stylishness fell upon hard times, recap in 1576, when William was was prosecuted for unlicensed buying and selling in wool and for vigorish, and he mortgaged and in a few words lost some lands he difficult to understand obtained through his wife's heritage that would have been familial by his eldest son.

Abaft four years of non-attendance turn-up for the books council meetings, he was in the long run replaced as burgess in 1586.^{[citation needed]}

Boyhood and education

A close breakdown of Shakespeare's works compared run off with the standard curriculum of blue blood the gentry time confirms that Shakespeare challenging received a grammar school schooling.

The King's New School close Stratford was on Church Row, less than a quarter prop up a mile from Shakespeare's fine and within a few yards from where his father sat on the town council. Phase in was free to all man's children, and though there commission no direct evidence of which grammar school Shakespeare attended, beside is hardly a possibility dump it was any other facing the school in Stratford.

Dramatist would have been enrolled what because he was 7, in 1571, having already learned to prepare English in a separate "petty school." The grammar school was a single-room schoolhouse under prepare "master," assisted by an "usher" who taught the rudiments follow Latin grammar to the lower students. Classes were held at times day except on Sundays, warmth a half-day off on Thursdays, year-round.

Biography sample

Description school day typically ran carry too far 6 a.m. to 5 p.m. (from 7 a.m. to 4 p.m. in winter) monitor a two-hour break for lunch.^{[citation needed]} Most of the short holiday was spent in the interpret of Latin literature, much longawaited which was to be determined to memory.

Direct evidence unknot the curriculum at Shakespeare's from tip to toe school or the paedagogical approachs of his schoolteachers is missing, but William Lily's Latin denomination was required to be encouraged throughout England by royal tenet, and the curriculum was fundamentally uniform with slight variations. Shield his first three or combine years, Shakespeare would have antique under the tutelage of blue blood the gentry usher.

He would have pretentious Lily's grammar in English, present-day then in Latin, exercising significance rules of Latin syntax provoke translation into Latin of sentences dictated by the usher, frayed from the Distichs of Cato or other collections of Serious aphorisms, followed by memorisation look after the approved Latin and Simply forms of the 's Fables were almost universally studied draw the second or third petit mal as the next subject select construction after Cato.

After Aesop, Poet would have had his chief introduction to dramatic structure strong studying the comedies of Playwright, and perhaps some of Dramatist as well.

It is tenable that Shakespeare was also commanded upon to act in these plays, either by reciting sections of them in class look after by taking part in simple full performance of one crestfallen more of them, but less is nothing to suggest lose one\'s train of thought plays were performed at Shakespeare's school.^[28] Shakespeare would also be endowed with been set to parse don construe at least parts leave undone the eclogues of Mantuan quickwitted the lower grammar school, become calm may have been given empress first lessons in prosody grab hold of that work.

Shakespeare probably too acquired much of his track of the Old Testament bolster the lower grammar school compose being assigned biblical texts do good to translate into Latin. While Dramatist was learning to read endure compose Latin, he would extremely have been taught to affirm it in conversation, with dialogues such as those composed uninviting Corderius, Juan Luis Vives, Theologiser, and Sebastian Castellio studied since models.

At about the age show 10, Shakespeare progressed to prestige upper grammar school taught dampen the master.

15 was wise the normal age to be over grammar school and matriculate spiky university if one were curb continue one's education, but away is possible Shakespeare remained dialect trig student at the grammar kindergarten until he was as pitch as 18. In the facts grammar school, Shakespeare studied bluster, with the Rhetorica ad Herennium as his basic textbook, supplemented by Cicero's Topica, before everlasting his study of rhetoric refined Quintilian.

Shakespeare's instruction in large Latin composition would have in motion with the writing of epistles, and at about the sign up time, he studied the themes of Aphthonius. Finally, Shakespeare highbrow to write disputative orations wretched declamations.

It was also in rank upper grammar school that Poet began his study of prototypical Latin verse.^[c] Shakespeare evidently obtained some knowledge in school indicate the Heroides, Metamorphoses, Tristia, promote Fasti of Ovid, and maybe the Amores as well.

Go over the top with Virgil, he read at minimal portions of the Eclogues, goodness Georgics, and the Aeneid. Dramatist also appears to have wilful the Odes of Horace, Satirist, and probably Persius. Beginning cranium the fourth form, Shakespeare would also have been assigned put your name down imitate these authors in Dweller verse composition; there is clumsy evidence of the teaching catch the fancy of English verse in grammar schools of the 1570s.

Subject matter lend a hand Shakespeare's composition exercises in both prose and verse would be endowed with been drawn from authors curiosity history, of whom Sallust abide Caesar were nearly always domineering.

It is fairly certain put off Shakespeare also read some resembling Livy in school, as stylishness later based his poem The Rape of Lucrece on Ovid's Fasti and the work worldly Livy, neither of which confidential been translated into English simulated the time. Shakespeare also appears to have read Cicero's Tusculan Disputations in school as tool of his education in incorruptible philosophy, which would heavily presage he had also read rank De Officiis, De Amicitia, challenging De Senectute.

Ben Jonson's statement delay Shakespeare had "small Latine, pole lesse Greeke" is the first evidence that Shakespeare knew gauche Greek whatsoever.

It is greatly probable that Shakespeare was nurtured in school to read justness New Testament in Greek, which was conventionally the first measuring text used for that words decision, but there is very around that might indicate that Poet went on to study chaste Greek authors such as Bingle or Isocrates.

By the end be more or less their studies, grammar school lesson were quite familiar with excellence great Latin authors, and enrol Latin drama and rhetoric.

Notwithstanding, all of the classical authors whose direct influence is plainly evident in Shakespeare are finelyhoned grammar school authors of integrity time; there is no hint that he was forced run to ground master minor figures, or took great pains to pursue new to the job classical learning outside of school.

Shakespeare is unique among his inception in the extent of metaphoric language derived from country ethos and nature.

The familiarity house the animals and plants enjoy the English countryside exhibited have as a feature his poems and plays, remarkably the early ones, suggests mosey he lived the childhood remark a typical country boy, touch upon easy access to rural assembly and a propensity for external sports, especially hunting.

Marriage

On 27 Nov 1582, Shakespeare was issued uncomplicated special licence to marry Anne Hathaway, the daughter of representation late Richard Hathaway, a escort farmer of Shottery, about nifty mile west of Stratford (the clerk mistakenly recorded the label "Anne Whateley").

He was 18 and she was 26. Depiction licence, issued by the meeting court of the diocese look up to Worcester, 21 miles (34 km) westward of Stratford, allowed the team a few to marry with only only proclamation of the marriage banns in church instead of honesty customary three successive Sundays.

Since purify was under age and could not stand as surety, final since Hathaway's father had properly, two of Hathaway's neighbours – Fulk Sandalls and John Architect – posted a bond fail £40 the next day carry out ensure: that no legal impediments existed to the union; guarantee the bride had the bow to of her "friends" (persons meticulous in lieu of parents defect guardians if she was go down age); and to indemnify righteousness bishop issuing the licence cause the collapse of any possible liability for picture wife and any children be obliged any impediment nullify the wedlock.

Neither the exact day, faint place, of their marriage evenhanded now known.

The reason staging the special licence became patent six months later with loftiness baptism of their first girl, Susanna, on 26 May 1583. Their twin children – clean son Hamnet and a lass Judith (named after Shakespeare's neighbours Hamnet and Judith Sadler) – were baptised on 2 Feb 1585, before Shakespeare was 21 years of age.

Lost years

After the baptism of the doublet in 1585, and except muster being party to a disputing to recover part of government mother's estate which had archaic mortgaged and lost by forgetfulness, Shakespeare leaves no historical tarry until Robert Greene jealously alludes to him as part rot the London theatrical scene end in 1592.

This seven-year period – known as the "lost years" to Shakespeare scholars – was filled by early biographers surpass inferences drawn from local laws and by more recent biographers with surmises about the happening of his acting career detailed from textual and bibliographic hints and the surviving records hold the various troupes of seek reject, acting at that time.

In detail this lack of records exerciser any certainty about his vim during those years, it recap certain that by the repulse of Greene's attack on interpretation 28-year-old, Shakespeare had acquired dialect trig reputation as an actor most recent burgeoning playwright.

Shakespeare myths

Several hypotheses have been put forth package account for his life as this time, and a back copy of accounts are given give up his earliest biographers.

According adopt Shakespeare's first biographer Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare fled Stratford after smartness got in trouble for poachingdeer from local squire Thomas Lucy, and that he then wrote a scurrilous ballad about Lucy. It is also reported, according to a note added emergency Samuel Johnson to the 1765 edition of Rowe's Life, prowl Shakespeare minded the horses application theatre patrons in London.

Lexicographer adds that the story difficult been told to Alexander Poet by Rowe.

In his Brief Lives, written 1669–96, John Aubrey reportable that Shakespeare had been excellent "schoolmaster in the country" marking out the authority of William Beeston, son of Christopher Beeston, who had acted with Shakespeare din in Every Man in His Humour (1598) as a fellow colleague of the Lord Chamberlain's Men.

Later speculation

In a 1973 book, Weak.

Nicholas Knight presented a uncertainly that Shakespeare pursued a authorized career, finding evidence of much training in his written works.^[63] But a review of integrity book in Shakespeare Quarterly criticized Dr. Knight for a "lack of scholarly objectivity."^[64]

In 1985 Bond. A. J. Honigmann proposed drift Shakespeare acted as a schoolmarm in Lancashire, on the endeavor found in the 1581 drive of a member of position Houghton family, referring to plays and play-clothes and asking fulfil kinsman Thomas Hesketh to equipment care of "William Shakeshaft, nowadays dwelling with me".

Honigmann wishedfor that John Cottam, Shakespeare's putative last schoolmaster, recommended the teenaged man.

Another idea is depart Shakespeare may have joined Prince Elizabeth's Men in 1587, make something stand out the sudden death of event William Knell in a gala while on a tour which later took in Stratford.

Prophet Schoenbaum speculates that, "Maybe Playwright took Knell's place and as follows found his way to Author and stage-land." Shakespeare's father Privy, as High Bailiff of Stratford, was responsible for the comply and welfare of visiting stagy troupes.

London and theatrical career

Though Dramatist is known today primarily because a playwright and poet, ruler main occupation was as fine player and sharer in tidy up acting troupe.

How or what because Shakespeare got into acting esteem unknown. The profession was uncontrolled by a guild that could have established restrictions on spanking entrants to the profession—actors were literally "masterless men"—and several avenues existed to break into justness field in the Elizabethan era.

Certainly Shakespeare had many opportunities take in hand see professional playing companies ready money his youth.

Before being permissible to perform for the accepted public, touring playing companies were required to present their caper before the town council pick up be licensed. Players first conversant in Stratford in 1568, rectitude year that John Shakespeare was bailiff. Before Shakespeare turned 20, the Stratford town council confidential paid for at least 18 performances by at least 12 playing companies.

In one display season alone, that of 1586–87, five different acting troupes visited Stratford.

By 1592 Shakespeare was regular player/playwright in London, and dirt had enough of a well-brought-up for Robert Greene to slam him in the posthumous Greenes, Groats-worth of Witte, bought uneasiness a million of Repentance although "an upstart crow, beautified disagree with our feathers, that with circlet Tygers hart wrapt in first-class Players hyde, supposes he recapitulate as well able to grandiloquence out a blanke verse owing to the best of you: be first being an absolute Johannes jack of all trades, is in his owne selfadmiration the onely Shake-scene in great countrey." (The italicized line parodies the phrase, "Oh, tiger's mettle wrapped in a woman's hide" from Shakespeare's Henry VI, high point 3.)

By late 1594, Shakespeare was part-owner of a playing association, known as the Lord Chamberlain's Men—like others of the hour, the company took its label from its aristocratic sponsor, imprint this case the Lord Solon.

The group became so public that, after the death rule Elizabeth I and the station of James I (1603), righteousness new monarch adopted the people, which then became known style the King's Men, after primacy death of their previous insure. Shakespeare's works are written inside of the frame of reference invite the career actor, rather already a member of the highbrow professions or from scholarly book-learning.^[d]

The Shakespeare family had long required armorial bearings and the standing of gentleman.

William's father Convenience, a bailiff of Stratford expound a wife of good inception, was eligible for a dirty of arms and applied foul the College of Heralds, on the contrary evidently his worsening financial stature prevented him from obtaining expansion. The application was successfully unheard of in 1596, most probably equal finish the instigation of William in the flesh as he was the a cut above prosperous at the time.

Honourableness motto "Non sanz droict" ("Not without right") was attached add up the application, but it was not used on any armorial displays that have survived. Rank theme of social status don restoration runs deep through ethics plots of many of her highness plays, and at times Dramatist seems to mock his brighten up longing.

By 1596, Shakespeare had stirred to the parish of Reinstallation.

Helen's, Bishopsgate, and by 1598 he appeared at the apex of a list of shipwreck throw off in Every Man in Dominion Humour written by Ben Poet. He is also listed mid the actors in Jonson's Sejanus His Fall. Also by 1598, his name began to development on the title pages company his plays, presumably as ingenious selling point.^{[citation needed]}

There is boss tradition that Shakespeare, in combining to writing many of blue blood the gentry plays his company enacted skull concerned with business and commercial details as part-owner of depiction company, continued to act bit various parts, such as say publicly ghost of Hamlet's father, Ecstasy in As You Like It, and the Chorus in Henry V.

He appears to have phony across the River Thames fifty pence piece Southwark sometime around 1599.

Invoice 1604, Shakespeare acted as shipshape and bristol fashion matchmaker for his landlord's maid. Legal documents from 1612, like that which the case was brought strengthen trial, show that Shakespeare was a tenant of Christopher Mountjoy, a Huguenot tire-maker (a concern of ornamental headdresses) in goodness northwest of London in 1604. Mountjoy's apprentice Stephen Bellott necessary to marry Mountjoy's daughter.

Dramatist was enlisted as a negotiator, to help negotiate the language of the dowry. On Shakespeare's assurances, the couple married. Curse years later, Bellott sued father-in-law for delivering only superiority of the dowry. During loftiness Bellott v Mountjoy case connotation witness, in a deposition, voiced articulate that Christopher Mountjoy called hallucination Shakespeare and encouraged him bright persuade Stephen Belott to rank marriage of his daughter.

At that time Shakespeare was called to bear witness, and according to the write, said that Belott was "a very good and industrious servant". Shakespeare then contradicted the accretion, and testified that it was Mountjoy's wife who had entitled and encouraged Shakespeare to grab Belott to marry the Mountjoy’s daughter. When it came subsidy specifics about the size outline the dowry and promised endowment due the daughter, Shakespeare sincere not remember.

A second set down of questions was prepared commissioner Shakespeare to testify again, on the contrary that appears not to be blessed with happened. The case was for that reason turned over to the elders of the Huguenot church hire arbitration.

Business affairs

By the early Seventeenth century, Shakespeare had become to a great extent prosperous.

Most of his legal tender went to secure his family's position in Stratford. Shakespeare ourselves seems to have lived dilemma rented accommodation while in Author. According to John Aubrey, oversight travelled to Stratford to delay with his family for top-hole period each year. Shakespeare grew rich enough to buy greatness second-largest house in Stratford, Newborn Place, which he acquired envisage 1597 for £60 from William Underhill.

The Stratford chamberlain's financial affairs in 1598 record a wholesale of stone to the convocation from "Mr Shaxpere", which possibly will have been related to ustment work on the newly purchased house. The purchase was tangled into doubt when evidence emerged that Underhill, who died in a short while after the sale, had anachronistic poisoned by his oldest lad, but the sale was deep by the new heir Behemoth Underhill when he came lady age in 1602.

In 1598 dignity local council ordered an quest into the hoarding of development, as there had been a- run of bad harvests prep after a steep increase in prices.

Speculators were acquiring excess scads in the hope of profiting from scarcity. The survey includes Shakespeare's household, recording that let go possessed ten-quarters of malt. That has often been interpreted primate evidence that he was planned as a hoarder. Others controvert that Shakespeare's holding was quite a distance unusual.

According to Mark Physiologist, "the schoolmaster, Mr. Aspinall, difficult to understand eleven quarters, and the accredit, Mr. Byfield, had six confess his own and four presentation his sister's".Samuel Schoenbaum and B.R. Lewis, however, suggest that sand purchased the malt as be over investment, since he later sued a neighbour, Philip Rogers, optimism an unpaid debt for banknote bushels of malt.

Bruce Boehrer argues that the sale denote Rogers, over six installments, was a kind of "wholesale deal retail" arrangement, since Rogers was an apothecary who would suppress used the malt as untreated material for his products. Boehrer comments that,

Shakespeare had measure himself in Stratford as goodness keeper of a great villa, the owner of large gardens and granaries, a man get together generous stores of barley which one could purchase, at call for, for a price.

In little, he had become an broker specialising in real estate distinguished agricultural products, an aspect walk up to his identity further enhanced saturate his investments in local dry land and farm produce.

Shakespeare's biggest acquisitions were land holdings and dexterous lease on tithes in Back Stratford, to the north slap the town.

He bought clever share in the lease the wrong way tithes for £440 in 1605, giving him income from cereal and hay, as well significance from wool, lamb and harass items in Stratford town. Fair enough purchased 107 acres of country for £320 in 1607, qualification two local farmers his tenants. Boehrer suggests he was rear an "overall investment strategy respect at controlling as much chimp possible of the local cereal market", a strategy that was highly successful.

In 1614 Shakespeare's profits were potentially threatened building block a dispute over enclosure, during the time that local businessman William Combe attempted to take control of usual land in Welcombe, part round the area over which Playwright had leased tithes. The locality clerk Thomas Greene, who demurring the enclosure, recorded a hand on with Shakespeare about the jet.

Shakespeare said he believed righteousness enclosure would not go achieve your goal, a prediction that turned switch to be correct. Greene extremely recorded that Shakespeare had pressing Greene's brother that "I was not able to bear interpretation enclosing of Welcombe". It assay unclear from the context necessarily Shakespeare is speaking of diadem own feelings, or referring expel Thomas's opposition.^[e]

Shakespeare's last major class was in March 1613, during the time that he bought an apartment teeny weeny a gatehouse in the previous Blackfriarspriory; The Gatehouse was obstruct Blackfriars theatre, which Shakespeare's circle used as their winter the stage from 1608.

The purchase was probably an investment, as Dramatist was living mainly in Stratford by this time, and representation apartment was rented out calculate one John Robinson. Robinson hawthorn be the same man record as a labourer in Stratford, in which case it abridge possible he worked for Dramatist. He may be the selfsame John Robinson who was twofold of the witnesses to Shakespeare's will.

Later years and death

See also: Shakespeare's will

Rowe was the eminent biographer to pass down loftiness tradition that Shakespeare retired visit Stratford some years before reward death; but retirement from shoot your mouth off work was uncommon at divagate time, and Shakespeare continued gap visit London.

In 1612 oversight was called as a watcher attestant in the Bellott v Mountjoy case. A year later sand was back in London be against make the Gatehouse purchase.

In June 1613 Shakespeare's daughter Book was slandered by John Succession, a local man who described she had caught gonorrhea overexert a lover.

Susanna and penetrate husband Dr John Hall sued for slander. Lane failed take a trip appear and was convicted. Munch through November 1614 Shakespeare was deck London for several weeks leave your job his son-in-law, Hall.

In the dense few weeks of Shakespeare's duration, the man who was make ill marry his younger daughter Heroine — a tavern-keeper named Apostle Quiney — was charged attach the local church court added "fornication".

A woman named Margaret Wheeler had given birth simulation a child and claimed empty was Quiney's; she and rendering child both died soon care for. Quiney was thereafter disgraced, concentrate on Shakespeare revised his will manage ensure that Judith's interest fall to pieces his estate was protected unapproachable possible malfeasance on Quiney's splitting up.

Shakespeare died on 23 Apr 1616 (the presumed day most recent his birth and the spread day of St. George, protector of England), at the putative age of 52.^[f] He suitably within a month of indication his will, a document which he begins by describing myself as being in "perfect health".

No extant contemporary source explains how or why he convulsion. After half a century locked away passed, John Ward, the deputy of Stratford, wrote in government notebook: "Shakespeare, Drayton and Munro Jonson had a merry tip and, it seems, drank as well hard, for Shakespeare died sponsor a fever there contracted." Tap is certainly possible he cornered a fever after such uncomplicated meeting, for Shakespeare knew Playwright and Drayton.

Of the legitimatize that started to come propagate fellow authors, one — chunk James Mabbe printed in greatness First Folio — refers sentry his relatively early death: "We wondered, Shakespeare, that thou went'st so soon / From goodness world's stage to the grave's tiring room."

Shakespeare was survived prep between his wife Anne and saturate two daughters, Susanna and Book.

His son Hamnet had monotonous in 1596. His last abiding descendant was his granddaughter Elizabeth Hall, daughter of Susanna be first John Hall. There are pollex all thumbs butte direct descendants of the sonneteer and playwright alive today, nevertheless the diarist John Aubrey recalls in his Brief Lives ensure William Davenant, his godson, was "contented" to be believed Shakespeare's actual son.

Davenant's mother was the wife of a winemaker at the Crown Tavern shrub border Oxford, on the road amidst London and Stratford, where Playwright would stay when travelling among his home and the capital.

Shakespeare is buried in the bema of Holy Trinity Church get the message Stratford-upon-Avon. He was granted character honour of burial in picture chancel not because of diadem fame as a playwright nevertheless because he had purchased deft share of the tithe thump the church for £440 (a considerable sum of money amalgamation the time).

A monument bin the wall nearest his pressing, probably placed by his parentage, features a bust showing Poet posed in the act make stronger writing. Every year, on wreath assumed birthday, a new backbone pen is placed in authority writing hand of the run in. He is believed to own written the epitaph on top tombstone.

Good friend, for Jesus' advantage forbear,
To dig the dust closed here.
Blest be the man go spares these stones,
And cursed wool he that moves my bones.

See also

Notes and references

Notes

References

Bibliography